In Lefkowitz v. Turley (1973) 414 U.S. 70, licensed architects challenged a New York statute disqualifying contractors for public contracts if they refused to waive their Fifth Amendment immunity. The architects, when called as witnesses before a grand jury, refused to sign waivers of immunity. The state had not charged them with any crimes, nor used their statements against them in any criminal proceeding. Nonetheless, the Supreme Court held that the statutorily compelled waivers violated the Self-Incrimination Clause.